Discrimination, Personal Discrimination, and Group Discrimination among Chinese Canadians/immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic – results from an online cross-section survey

Abstract

Background: Pre-existing racial discrimination has been exacerbated, particularly among Chinese immigrants in Canada since 2020, during the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. Method: Data for this cross-section 2021 study were collected via an anonymous online survey in both English and Chinese, with 739 participants aged 16 or older of Chinese origin residing in Canada for at least six months. Voluntary participation was ensured, with informed consent obtained prior to questionnaire access. The study utilized descriptive statistics for sociodemographic and mental health variables, Chi-square analysis for pre- and duringpandemic comparisons, correlation analyses for examining relationships among variables, and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on outcome variables. Mediating effects of perceived group discrimination were tested using model analysis and Bootstrap estimation procedure in AMOS. Results: There was a significant increase in reported discrimination experiences, with over half of participants experiencing discrimination, a 16.67-fold increase since the pandemic's onset. Public places were the most common sites for discrimination incidents. Only 7% of victims reported incidents to authorities, citing barriers such as lack of knowledge (30.96%), safety concerns (28.60%), and language barriers (27.41%). Both personal and group discrimination predicted poorer mental health outcomes, with over 80% reporting strong negative emotions, primarily anger (95.33%). Perceived group discrimination partially mediated the relationship between personal discrimination and negative emotions. Covariates revealed that higher education and English proficiency were associated with lower perceived group discrimination, while employment was linked to higher perceived group discrimination. Perceived discrimination positively correlated with perceived group discrimination, and both were associated with negative emotions. Conclusion: The study's findings underscore a concerning trend of escalating and widespread anti-Asian discrimination in Canada. Chinese immigrants lack awareness of available antidiscrimination resources, hindering effective response to incidents. Over 80% of respondents express skepticism about imminent change. Those experiencing discrimination exhibit deteriorating mental health and diminished optimism. Many attribute the surge in discrimination to COVID-19 and suggest ad hoc laws as a solution; however, establishing a reliable reporting system emerges as a top priority from our discussion.